1	The Historical Veracity of the New Testament Documents Lecture 8 – Religious works and Conclusions
2	Religious Works Egyptian Book of the Dead Zoroastrianism Zend-Avesta Pahlavi Texts Shintoism The Kojiki The Nihongi
3	Religious Works Hinduism Vedas Upanishads Laws of Manu Laws of Aryas Institutes of Vishnu The Epics Vendanta
4	Religious Works Buddhism Buddhist Suttas Vinaya Texts The Lotus Sutra Jainism Akaranga Sutra Kalpa Sutra
5	Religious Works Confucianism The I Ching The Shu Ching The Shih Ching Confucian Analects Mencius Hsiao Ching Taoism Tao-te Ching
6	Religious Works Islam Qur'an Hadith Sufi Texts Sikhism Shri Guru Granth Sahib
7	Religious Works Bahai'i Bab Baha'u'llah 'Abdu'l-Baha Shoghi Effendi Mormonism Book of Mormon Pearl of Great Price
8	Ancient Egyptian Egyptian Book of the Dead Collection of hymns and spells for the dead (1) [1] A HYMN OF PRAISE TO RA WHEN HE RISETH IN THE EASTERN PART OF HEAVEN. Behold Osiris Ani the scribe who recordeth the holy offerings of all the gods, (2) who saith: "Homage to thee, O thou who hast come as Khepera, Khepera, the creator of the gods. Thou risest, thou shinest, (3) making bright thy mother [Nut], crowned king of the gods. [Thy] mother Nut doeth homage unto thee with both her hands. (4) The land of Manu receiveth thee with content, and the goddess Maat embraceth thee at the two seasons. May he give splendour, and power, and triumph, and (5) a coming-forth [i.e., resurrection] as a living soul to see Horus of the two horizons to the ka[1] of Osiris, the scribe Ani, triumphant before Osiris, (6) who saith: Hail all ye gods of the Temple of the Soul, who weigh heaven and earth in the balance, and who provide food and abundance of meat. Hail Tatunen, One, (7) creator of mankind and of the substance of the gods of the south and of the north, of the west and of the east. Ascribe [ye] praise unto Ra, the lord of heaven, the (8) Prince, Life, Health, and Strength, the Creator of the gods, and adore ye him in his beautiful Presence as he riseth in the atet boat. (9) They who dwell in the heights and they who dwell in the depths worship thee. Thoth and Maat both are thy recorders. Thine enemy[8] is given to the (10) fire, the evil one hath fallen; his arms are bound, and his legs hath Ra taken from him. The children of (11) impotent revolt shall never rise up again.
9	Egyptian: Bibliographical Test 4 known different versions are available 5 manuscripts of one version One each incomplete of the other three plus numerous fragments Document changed with each dynasty Unknown gap between earliest manuscript and extant manuscripts Meaningless since the documents are different Historicity not important in Egyptian theology
10	Egyptian: Internal Test Many internal differences Work is not cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness None Geographically placed Chronologically, unknown number of years separate source from author Document does not claim to be a history Hymns Spells
11	Egyptian: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Since work is not a history it is not possible to make these comparisons Archeology Does not support any historical claims Does support the ritual claims, that is those accomplished by the living Similar problems with most ancient religious works
12	Zoroastrianism Zend-Avesta Pahlavi Texts
13	Zoroastrianism: Zend-Avesta Vendîdâd – religious laws and mythical tales Vispêrad – sacrificial litanies Yasna – sacrificial litanies and five hymns The first object of man is purity, yaozdau purity is for man, next to life, the greatest good. Impurity or uncleanness may be described as the state of a person or thing that is possessed of the demon; and the object of purification is to expel the demon. The principal means by which uncleanness enters man is death, as death is the triumph of the demon. When a man dies, as soon as the soul has parted from the body, the Drug Nasu or Corpse-Drug falls upon the dead from the regions of hell, and whoever thenceforth touches the corpse becomes unclean, and makes unclean whomsoever he touches. The Drug is expelled from the dead by means of the Sag-dîd, 'the look of the dog:' 'a four-eyed dog' or a white one with yellow ears' is brought near the body and is made to look at the dead; as soon as he has done so, the Drug flees back to hell. The Drug is expelled from the living, whom she has seized through their contact with the dead, by a process of washings with ox's urine (gômêz or nîrang) and with water, combined with the Sag-dîd.
14	Zoroastrianism: Pahlavi Texts Bundahis – creation myth Bahman Yast – prophetical revelation ShÂyast LÂ-shÂyast - laws 0. In the name of the creator Aûharmazd. 1. The Zand-âkâs ('Zand-knowing or tradition-informed), which is first about Aûharmazd's original creation and the antagonism of the evil spirit and afterwards about the nature of the creatures from the original creation till the end, which is the future existence (tanû-i pasinö). 2. As revealed by the religion of the Mazdayasnians, so it is declared that Aûharmazd is supreme in omniscience and goodness, and unrivalled in splendour; the region of light is the place of Aûharmazd, which they call 'endless light,' and the omniscience and goodness of the unrivalled Aûharmazd is what they call 'revelation.' 3. Revelation is the explanation of both spirits together; one is he who is independent of unlimited time, because Aûharmazd and the region, religion, and time of Aûharmazd were and are and ever will be; while Aharman in darkness, with backward understanding and desire for destruction, was in the abyss, and 'it is he who will not be; and the place of that destruction, and also of that darkness, is what they call the 'endlessly dark.' 4. And between them was empty space, that is, what they call 'air,' in which is now their meeting. 5. Both are limited and unlimited spirits, for the supreme is that which they call endless light, and the abyss that which is endlessly dark, so that between them is a void, and one is not connected with the other; and, again, both spirits are limited as to their own selves.
15	Zoroastrianism: Bibliographical 4 manuscripts and fragments Large gap between earliest manuscript (?) (possibly 600 BC) and extant manuscripts (1300 to 1700 AD)
16	Zoroastrianism: Internal Test Internal contradictions Works are not cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness Tertiary or none in every case Geographically some problems Chronologically, unknown years separate source from author Pahlavi Texts claim to be histories Creation myth Revelations
17	Zoroastrianism: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Works have no support in time or place Archeology Does not support historical claims Does support the ritual claims
18	Shintoism The Kojiki The Nihongi
19	Shintoism: Kojiki Completed 712 AD Myths, legends, and records of Japan from the earliest period (1000 to 500 BC) Problem is writing was not introduced to Japan until 284 AD [SECT. I.--THE BEGINNING OF HEAVEN AND EARTH.] The names of the Deities that were born in the Plain of High Heaven when the Heaven and Earth began were the Deity Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven, next the High-August-Producing-Wondrous Deity, next the Divine-Producing-Wondrous-Deity. These three Deities were all Deities born alone, and hid their persons. The names of the Deities that were born next from a thing that sprouted up like unto a reed-shoot when the earth, young and like unto floating oil, drifted about medusa-like, were the Pleasant-Reed-Shoot-Prince-Elder Deity, next the Heavenly-Eternally-Standing-Deity. These two Deities were likewise born alone, and hid their persons. The five Deities in the above list are separate Heavenly Deities.
20	Shintoism: Nihongi Chronicles of Japan Completed 720 AD Book I Of old, Heaven and Earth were not yet separated, and the In and Yo not yet divided. They formed a chaotic mass like an egg which was of obscurely defined limits and contained germs. The purer and clearer part was thinly drawn out, and formed Heaven, while the heavier and grosser element settled down and became Earth. The finer element easily became a united body, but the consolidation of the heavy and gross element was accomplished with difficulty. Heaven was therefore formed first, and Earth was established subsequently. Thereafter divine beings were produced between them. Hence it is said that when the world began to be created, the soil of which lands were composed floated about in a manner which might be compared to the floating of a fish sporting on the surface of the water. At this time a certain thing was produced between Heaven and Earth. It was in form like a reed-shoot. Now this became transformed into a God, and was called Kuni-toko-tachi no Mikoto. Next there was Kuni no sa-tsuchi no Mikoto, and next Toyo-kumu-nu no Mikoto, in all three deities
21	Shintoism: Bibliographical As for the ère Japonaise mentioned by the commissioners, it may be permitted to observe that it was only introduced by an edict dated 15th Dec., 1872 that is to say just a fortnight before the publication of their report. And this era, this accession, is confidently placed thirteen or fourteen centuries before the first history which records it was written, nine centuries before (at the earliest computation) the art of writing was introduced into the country, and on the sole authority of books teeming with miraculous legends!! Does such a proceeding need any comment after once being formulated in precise terms, and can any unprejudiced person continue to accept the early Japanese chronology and the first thousand years of the so-called history of Japan. - Translator 1400 years between manuscript/incidents 500 years between earliest possible
22	Shintoism: Internal Test Internal contradictions Works are not cohesive but are reasonably comprehensible Degree of the witness Tertiary or none in every case Geographically some problems Chronologically, unknown years separate source from author Texts claim to be histories
23	Shintoism: External Test Comparison with other works (region/time) The Emperor Tem-mu, with his anxiety to amend "the deviations from truth and the empty falsehoods" of the historical documents preserved by the various families, and the author of the "Chronicles of Japan" with his elaborate system of fictitious dates, recur to our minds, and we ask ourselves to what extent similar garblings of history,--sometimes unintentional,--may have gone on during earlier ages, when there was even less to check them than there was in the eighth century. If, therefore, the translator here gives expression to a few opinions founded chiefly on a careful study of the text of the "Records of Ancient Matters" helped out by a study of the "Chronicles of Japan," he would be understood to do so with great diffidence, especially with regard to his few (so to speak) constructive remarks. As to the destructive side of the criticism, there need be less hesitation; for the old histories bear evidence too conclusively against themselves for it to be possible for the earlier portions of them, at least, to stand the test of sober investigation.. Archeology Does not support historical claims
24	Hindu Vedas Upanishads Laws of Manu Laws of Aryas Institutes of Vishnu The Epics Vendanta
25	Hindu Vedas Rig Sama Yajur Atharva Composed 1500 BC (tradition) Codified 600 BC (tradition) Written down 300 BC (tradition)
26	Hindu: Vedas Rig Hymns to various gods 1 I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, The hotar, lavishest of wealth. 2 Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers. He shall bring. hitherward the Gods. 3 Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yea, plenty waxing day by day, Most rich in heroes, glorious. 4 Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou encompassest about Verily goeth to the Gods. 5 May Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great, The God, come hither with the Gods. 6 Whatever blessing, Agni, thou wilt grant unto thy worshipper, That, Angiras, is indeed thy truth. 7 To thee, dispeller of the night, O Agni, day by day with prayer Bringing thee reverence, we come 8 Ruler of sacrifices, guard of Law eternal, radiant One, Increasing in thine own abode. 9 Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son: Agni, be with us for our weal.
27	Hindu: Vedas Sama Hymns used by priests during the Soma Sacrifice 1. Come, Agni, praised with song, to feast and sacrificial offering: sit As Hotar on the holy grass! 2. O Agni, thou hast been ordained Hotar of every sacrifice, By Gods, among the race of men. 3. Agni we choose as envoy, skilled performer of this holy rite, Hotar, possessor of all wealth. 4. Served with oblation, kindled, bright, through love of song may Agni, bent On riches, smite the Vritras dead! 5. I laud your most beloved guest like a dear friend, O Agni, him Who, like a chariot, wins us wealth. 6. Do thou, O Agni, with great might guard us from all malignity, Yea, from the hate of mortal man! 7. O Agni, come; far other songs of praise will I sing forth to thee. Wax mighty with these Soma-drops! 8. May Vatsa draw thy mind away even from thy loftiest dwelling place! Agni, I yearn for thee with song. 9. Agni, Atharvan brought thee forth by rubbing from the sky, the head Of all who offer sacrifice. 10. O Agni, bring us radiant light to be our mighty succour, for Thou art our visible deity!
28	Hindu: Vedas Yajur Manual of Vedic sacrificial rites Prapathaka 2. The Soma sacrifice 1. The preparation of the sacrificer 2. The consecration of the sacrificer 3. The place of sacrifice 4. The sacrificial cow 5. The footprints of the cow 6. The measuring of the Soma 7. The buying of the Soma 8. The placing of the Soma on the cart 9. The taking of the Soma to the hall 10. The guest-offering to the Soma 11. The Upasads 12. The high altar 13. The sacrificial carts and the shed 14. The special sacrifices
29	Hindu: Vedas Yajur Manual of Vedic sacrificial rites Prapathaka 2. The Soma sacrifice 7. The buying of the Soma i. 2. 7. a I buy Soma from thee, strong, rich in sap, full of force, overcoming the foe, the pure with the pure I buy, the bright with the bright, the immortal with the immortal, to match thy cow. b With us be the gold. c Thou art the bodily form of penance, Prajapati's kind, I buy (Soma) with the last offspring of thee that bast a thousandfold prosperity. d With us be union with thee; with me let thy wealth abide. e With us be light, darkness be on the Soma-seller. f Come as a friend to us, creating firm friendships. g Enter the right thigh of Indra, glad the glad, tender the tender. h O Svana, Bhraja, Anghari, Bambhari, Hasta, Suhasta, and Krçanu, here are your wages for Soma; guard them, let them not fail you.
30	Hindu: Vedas Atharva Contains material from the Rig Veda, plus numerous incantations and metaphysical texts Written down about 200 BC Traditionally composed about 1000 B.C. I. CHARMS TO CURE DISEASES AND POSSESSION BY DEMONS OF DISEASE (BHAISHAGYKNI) V, 22. Charm against takman (fever) and related diseases 1. May Agni drive the takman away from here, may Soma, the press-stone, and Varuna, of tried skill; may the altar, the straw (upon the altar), and the brightly-flaming fagots (drive him away)! Away to naught shall go the hateful powers! 2. Thou that makest all men sallow, inflarning them like a searing fire, even now, O takman, thou shalt become void of strength: do thou now go away down, aye, into the depths! The takman that is spotted, covered Nvith spots, like reddish sediment, him thou, (O plant) of unremitting potency, drive away down below!
31	Hindu: Upanishads As many as 149 Upanishads 1. Aitareya-upanishad. 2. Taittirîya-upanishad. 3. Khândogya-upanishad. 4. Mundaka-upanishad. 5. Prasna-upanishad. 6. Kaushîtaki-upanishad. 7. Maitrâyanîya-upanishad. 8. Kathavallî-upanishad. 9. Svetâsvatara-upanishad. 10. Brihad-âranyaka-upanishad. 11. Talavakâra (Kena)-upanishad. 12. Nrisimhottaratâpanîya-upanishad
32	Hindu: Upanishads Traditionally some are as ancient as 600 BC Known to date from as late as 1000 AD KHÂNDOGYA-UPANISHAD. FIRST PRAPÂTHAKA. FIRST KHANDA 1. 1. LET a man meditate on the syllable Om, called the udgîtha; for the udgîtha (a portion of the Sâma-veda) is sung, beginning with Om. The full account, however, of Om is this:-- 2. The essence of all beings is the earth, the essence of the earth is water, the essence of water the plants, the essence of plants man, the essence of man speech, the essence of speech the Rig-veda, the essence of the Rig-veda the Sâma-veda, the essence of the Sâma-veda the udgîtha (which is Om). 3. That udgîtha (Om) is the best of all essences, the highest, deserving the highest place, the eighth.
33	Hindu: Laws of Manu Manu (Adam of Hindus) collection of laws CHAPTER I. 1. The great sages approached Manu, who was seated with a collected mind, and, having duly worshipped him, spoke as follows: 2. 'Deign, divine one, to declare to us precisely and in due order the sacred laws of each of the (four chief) castes (varna) and of the intermediate ones. 3. 'For thou, O Lord, alone knowest the purport, (i.e.) the rites, and the knowledge of the soul, (taught) in this whole ordinance of the Self-existent (Svayambhu), which is unknowable and unfathomable.' 4. He, whose power is measureless, being thus asked by the high-minded great sages, duly honoured them, and answered, 'Listen!' 5. This (universe) existed in the shape of Darkness, unperceived, destitute of distinctive marks, unattainable by reasoning, unknowable, wholly immersed, as it were, in deep sleep. 6. Then the divine Self-existent (Svayambhu, himself) indiscernible, (but) making (all) this, the great elements and the rest, discernible, appeared with irresistible (creative) power, dispelling the darkness. 7. He who can be perceived by the internal organ (alone), who is subtile, indiscernible, and eternal, who contains all created beings and is inconceivable, shone forth of his own (will).
34	Hindu: Laws of Aryas These are Hindu law books written by the sages Âpastamba, Gautama, Vasishtha, and Baudhâyana in the first millenium BC PRASNA I, PATALA 1, KHANDA 1. 1. Now, therefore, we will declare the acts productive of merit which form part of the customs of daily life, as they have been settled by the agreement (of those who know the law). 2. The authority (for these duties) is the agreement of those who know the law, 3. And (the authorities for the latter are) the Vedas alone. 4. (There are) four castes--Brâhmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sûdras. 5. Amongst these, each preceding (caste) is superior by birth to the one following. 6. (For all these), excepting Sûdras and those who have committed bad actions, (are ordained) the initiation, the study of the Veda, and the kindling of the sacred fire; and (their) works are productive of rewards (in this world and the next). 7. To serve the other (three) castes (is ordained) for the Sûdra. 8. The higher the caste (which he serves) the greater is the merit.
35	Hindu: Institutes of Vishnu VISHNU I. 1. THE night of Brahman being over, and the God sprung from the lotus (Brahman) having woke from his slumber, Vishnu purposing to create living beings, and perceiving the earth covered with water, 2. Assumed the shape of a boar, delighting to sport in water, as at the beginning of each former Kalpa, and raised up the earth (from the water). 3. His feet were the Vedas; his tusks the sacrificial stakes; in his teeth were the offerings; his mouth was the pyre; his tongue was the fire; his hair was the sacrificial grass; the sacred texts were his head; and he was (endowed with the miraculous power of) a great ascetic. 4. His eyes were day and night; he was of superhuman nature; his ears were the two bundles of Kusa grass (for the Ishtis, or smaller sacrifices, and for the animal offerings); his ear-rings were the ends of those bundles of Kusa grass (used for wiping the ladle and other sacrificial implements); his nose (the vessel containing) the clarified butter; his snout was the ladle of oblations; his voice was similar in sound to the chanting of the Sâma-veda; and he was of huge size. 5. He was full of piety and veracity; beautiful; his strides and his strength were immense (like those of Vishnu); his large nostrils were penances; his knees the victim; and his figure colossal.
36	Hindu: The Epics Mahabharata Attributed to the sage Vyasa Written down from 540 to 300 BC Legends of the Bharatas, a Vedic Aryan group Ramayana Attributed to the poet Valmiki Written down during the first century AD Love story with moral and spiritual themes
37	Hindu: The Epics Mahabharata BHAGAVADGÎTÂ. CHAPTER I. Dhritarâshtra said: What did my (people) and the Pândavas do, O Sañgaya! when they assembled together on the holy field of Kurukshetra, desirous to do battle? Sañgaya said: Seeing the army of the Pândavas drawn up in battle-array, the prince Duryodhana approached the preceptor, and spoke (these) words: 'O preceptor! observe this grand army of the sons of Pându, drawn up in battle-array by your talented pupil, the son of Drupada. In it are heroes (bearing) large bows, the equals of Bhîma and Arguna in battle--(namely), Yuyudhâna, Virâta, and Drupada, the master of a great car, and Dhrishtaketu, Kekitâna, and the valiant king of Kâsî, Purugit and Kuntibhoga, and that eminent man Saibya; the heroic Yudhâmanyu, the valiant Uttamaugas, the son of Subhadrâ, and the sons of Draupadî--all masters of great cars. And now, O best of Brâhmanas! learn who are most distinguished among us, and are leaders of my army.
38	Hindu: Vendanta FIRST ADHYÂYA. FIRST PÂDA. MAY my mind be filled with devotion towards the highest Brahman, the abode of Lakshmi who is luminously revealed in the Upanishads; who in sport produces, sustains, and reabsorbs the entire Universe; whose only aim is to foster the manifold classes of beings that humbly worship him. The nectar of the teaching of Parâsara's son (Vyâsa),--which was brought up from the middle of the milk-ocean of the Upanishads--which restores to life the souls whose vital strength had departed owing to the heat of the fire of transmigratory existence--which was well guarded by the teachers of old--which was obscured by the mutual conflict of manifold opinions,--may intelligent men daily enjoy that as it is now presented to them in my words. The lengthy explanation (vritti) of the Brahma-sûtras which was composed by the Reverend Bodhâyana has been abridged by former teachers; according to their views the words of the Sûtras will be explained in this present work.
39	Hindu: Bibliographical Test Manuscripts are available Chief problem is accurate transmission Many versions, none authoritative Scribe class did not develop similar to Hebrew culture—caste system could not support Large gap between earliest manuscript and extant manuscripts Problems are similar to Old Testament books (except no scribes and little commonality) Historicity not important in Hindu theology (world is viewed as unchanging)
40	Hindu: Internal Test Many internal contradictions Works are not cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness Tertiary or none in every case Geographically some problems Chronologically 500 to 1200+ years separate source from author None of the documents claim to be histories Epics are similar to Iliad or Odyssey Hymns Spells
41	Hindu: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Since works are not histories it is not possible to make these comparisons Archeology Does not support historical claims Does support the ritual claims Hinduism and Hindu scripture is basis for Buddhism, Taoism, Jainism, and Sikhism
42	Buddhism Buddhist Suttas Vinaya Texts The Lotus Sutra
43	Buddhism: Suttas Book of the Great Decrease (the Mahâ-parinibbâna-Suttanta) - Buddhist Gospel Foundation of the Kingdom of Righteousness (the Dhamma-kakka-ppavattana-Sutta) - Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path Discussion on Knowledge of the Three Vedas (the Tevigga-Suttanta) - dialogue on method of attaining state of union with Brahmâ 'If he should desire--' (Âkankheyya-Sutta) - argument in early Buddhist mysticism
44	Buddhism: Suttas Treatise on Barrenness and Bondage (the Ketokhila-Sutta) - Order of Mendicants Legend of the Great King of Glory (the Mahâ-sudassana-Suttanta) - example of the way previously existing legends were dealt with by early Buddhists 'All the Âsavas' (the Sabbâsava-Sutta) - explains a constantly recurring technical term and lays down the essential principles of Buddhist Agnosticism
45	Buddhism: Suttas Book of the Great Decrease (the Mahâ-parinibbâna-Suttanta) – only history 11. … And passing out of the state between consciousness and unconsciousness he fell into a state in which the consciousness both of sensations and of ideas had wholly passed away. 12. Then the venerable Ânanda said to the venerable Anuruddha: 'O my Lord, O Anuruddha, the Blessed One is dead!' 'Nay! brother Ânanda, the Blessed One is not dead. He has entered into that state in which both sensations and ideas have ceased to be!‘ 46. And those five hundred brethren arranged their robes on one shoulder; and bowing down with clasped hands, they thrice walked reverently round the pile, and then bowed down in reverence at the feet of the Blessed One. 47. And when the homage of the venerable Mahâ Kassapa and of those five hundred brethren was ended, the funeral pile of the Blessed One caught fire of itself[1]. 48. Now as the body of the Blessed One burned itself away, from the skin and the integument, and the flesh, and the nerves, and the fluid of the joints, neither soot nor ash was seen: and only the bones remained behind.
46	Buddhism: Vinaya Texts Pârâgika Pâkittiya Mahâvagga Kullavagga Parivâra-pâtha regulations for the outward life of the members of the Buddhist Samgha (monks)
47	Buddhism: The Lotus Sutra Now at that time it was that the Lord surrounded, attended, honoured, revered, venerated, worshipped by the four classes of hearers, after expounding the Dharmaparyâya called 'the Great Exposition,' a text of great development, serving to instruct Bodhisattvas and proper to all Buddhas, sat cross-legged on the seat of the law and entered upon the meditation termed 'the station of the exposition of Infinity;' his body was motionless and his mind had reached perfect tranquillity. And as soon as the Lord had entered upon his meditation, there fell a great rain of divine flowers, Mandâravasâ and great Mandâravas, Mañgûshakas and great Mañgûshakas, covering the Lord and the four classes of hearers, while the whole Buddha field shook in six ways: it moved, removed, trembled, trembled from one end to the other, tossed, tossed along. Then did those who were assembled and sitting together in that congregation, monks, nuns, male and female lay devotees, gods, Nagas, goblins, Gandharvas, demons, Garudas, Kinnaras, great serpents, men, and beings not human, as well as governors of a region, rulers of armies and rulers of four continents, all of them with their followers, gaze on the Lord in astonishment, in amazement, in ecstasy.
48	Buddhism: Bibliographical Siddhartha Gautama lived about 623 BC to 543 BC (traditional) Many manuscripts and fragments are available – many versions Earliest manuscript believed to be written 450 BC (100+ years after death), but no record until 250 AD Earliest manuscripts 200 to 500 AD (nearly 650 years from Buddha)
49	Buddhism: Internal Test Internal contradictions Works are generally cohesive and reasonably comprehensible Degree of the witness Tertiary or none in every case Geographically some problems Chronologically, unknown years separate source from author As described some texts claim to be histories
50	Buddhism: External Test Comparison with other works (region/time) 'In opposition to Subhadda,--the tradition goes on to relate,--there came forward one of the most distinguished and oldest of Buddha's disciples, the great Kassapa, who proposed that five hundred of the most eminent members of the community should assemble at Râgagaha, the royal residence of the ruler of Magadha, in order to collect the Master's precepts in an authentic form. It has already been said above, how, during the seven months' sitting ofthe assembly, Kassapa as president fixed the Vinaya with the assistance of Upâli, and the Dhamma with the assistance of Ânanda. 'This is the story as it has come down to us. What we have here before us is not history, but pure invention; and, moreover, an invention of no very recent date. Apart from internal reasons that might be adduced to support this, we are able to prove it by comparing another text which is older than this story, and the author of which cannot yet have known it. I allude to the highly important Sutta, which gives an account of the death of Buddha, and the Pâli text of which has recently been printed by Professor Childers. – translator’s notes Archeology Does not fully support historical claims Historical evidence does not support Buddha
51	Jainism Akaranga Sutra Kalpa Sutra
52	Jainism: Akaranga Sutra Mahavira called Vardhamana - 599 to 527 BC (possibly 549 to 477 BC) Written after 100 AD FIRST LESSON. O long-lived (Gambusvamin)! I (Sudharman) have heard the following discourse from the venerable (Mahivira): (1) Here many do not remember whether they have descended in an eastern direction (when they were born in this world), or in a southern, or in a western, or in a northern direction, or in the direction from above, or in the direction from below, or in a direction intermediate (between the cardinal points), or in a direction intermediate between these (and the cardinal points). (2) Similarly, some do not know whether their soul is born again and again or not; nor what they were formerly, nor what they will become after having died and left this world. (3) Now this is what one should know, either by one's own knowledge or through the instruction of the highest (i.e. a Tirthakara), or having heard it from others: that he descended in an eastern direction, or in any other direction (particularised above). Similarly,some know that their soul is born again and again, that it arrives in this or that direction, whatever direction that may be. (4) He believes in soul, believes in the World believes in rewards, believes in action (acknowledged to be our own doing in such judgments as these): 'I did it;' 'I shall cause another to do it;' 'I shall allow another to do it.' In the world, these are all the causes of sin, which must be comprehended and renounced.
53	Jainism: Kalpa Sutra The Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu Lives of the Ginas Life of Mahavira Written after 100 AD First Lecture. Obeisance to the Arhats! Obeisance to the Liberated Ones! Obeisance to the Religious Guides! Obeisance to the Religious Instructors! Obeisance to all Saints in the World! This fivefold obeisance, destroying all sins, is of all benedictions the principal benediction. In that period, in that age lived the Venerable Ascetic Mahavira, the five (most important moments of whose life happened) when the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Uttaraphalguni; to wit, in Uttaraphalguni he descended (from heaven), and having descended (thence), he entered the womb (of Devananda); in Uttaraphalguni he was removed from the womb (of Devananda) to the womb (of Trisala); in Uttaraphalguni he was born; in Uttaraphalguni, tearing out his hair, he left the house and entered the state of houselessness; in Uttaraphalguni he obtained the highest knowledge and intuition, called Kevala, which is infinite, supreme, unobstructed, unimpeded, complete, and perfect. But in Svati the Venerable One obtained final liberation. (1) End of the First Lecture.
54	Jainism: Bibliographical The Jain canonical literature was originally composed in Ardha-Magadhi, but later Sanskrit became its principal medium. There is a lot of variation as to what constitutes original Jain literature. For several centuries even the monks themselves did not have a common agreement on this subject. The whole literature came into its present format much after the passing away of Mahavira. The works therefore do not guarantee the purity of his teachings – Jainist teaching 500+ years between manuscript/incidents 500+ years between earliest possible
55	Jainism: Internal Test Internal contradictions Works are not cohesive and are somewhat incomprehensible Degree of the witness Tertiary or none in every case Geographically some problems Chronologically, unknown years separate source from author Texts claim to be histories
56	Jainism: External Test Comparison with other works (region/time) Real problem as seen is there are no works to compare No reliable historical literature is extant Archeology Does not support historical claims Historical evidence does not support Mahavira
57	Sikhism 1400 AD monotheistic derivation of Hinduism Shri Guru Granth Sahib Collected writings of the six Sikh gurus Hymns Section 01 - Jup - Part 001 One Universal Creator God. The Name Is Truth. Creative Being Personified. No Fear. No Hatred. Image Of The Undying, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent. By Guru's Grace ~ Chant And Meditate: True In The Primal Beginning. True Throughout The Ages. True Here And Now. O Nanak, Forever And Ever True. \|\|1\|\| By thinking, He cannot be reduced to thought, even by thinking hundreds of thousands of times. By remaining silent, inner silence is not obtained, even by remaining lovingly absorbed deep within. The hunger of the hungry is not appeased, even by piling up loads of worldly goods. Hundreds of thousands of clever tricks, but not even one of them will go along with you in the end.
58	Sikhism: Bibliographical Test Many manuscripts are available Believed to have a definitive version Modern literature Documents make no historical claims
59	Sikhism: Internal Test Significant internal contradictions Work is not entirely cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness None by witness Geographically placed Chronologically placed Does not claim to be a history
60	Sikhism: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Since work is not a history it is not possible to make these comparisons Archeology Supports ritual claims
61	Confucianism The I Ching The Shu Ching The Shih Ching Confucian Analects Mencius Hsiao Ching
62	Confucianism: I Ching The Book of Changes Traditionally 3000 BC (traditionally written by legendary Chinese Emperor Fu Hsi (2953-2838 BC)) but may be as old as 5000 BC Known in Confusion period 450-350 BC, Confusion literature says written 1200 BC Oracular book - one of the oldest sacred texts in the world I. KHIEN hexagram Explanation of the entire figure by king Wăn Khien (represents) what is great and originating, penetrating, advantageous, correct and firm.
63	Confucianism: Shu Ching The Book of Historical Records Describes events dating back 2357-2627 BC Written down during Han dynasty (23-220 AD) Mutilated and fragmented condition Said to have existed in the time of Confucius Collection of historical memorials The Book of Thang 1. Examining into antiquity, (we find that) the Tî Yâo was styled Fang-hsün. He was reverential, intelligent, accomplished, and thoughtful,--naturally and without effort. He was sincerely courteous, and capable of (all) complaisance. The bright (influence of these qualities) was felt through the four quarters (of the land), and reached to (heaven) above and (earth) beneath. He made the able and virtuous distinguished, and thence proceeded to the love of (all in) the nine classes of his kindred, who (thus) became harmonious. He (also) regulated and polished the people (of his domain), who all became brightly intelligent. (Finally), he united and harmonized the myriad states; and so the black-haired people were transformed. The result was (universal) concord.
64	Confucianism: Shih Ching The Book of Odes Poems dating back to 1000-500 BC Kû Hsî, whose own standard work on the Shih appeared in A.D. 1178, declined to express himself positively on the expurgation of the odes, but summed up his view of what Confucius did for them in the following words:--'Royal methods had ceased, and poems were no more collected. Those which were extant were full of errors, and wanting in arrangement. When Confucius returned from Wei to Lû, he brought with him the odes that he had gotten in other states, and digested them, along with those that were to be found in Lû, into a collection of 300 pieces.‘ Fragments known to exist about 800 BC ODE 1. THE NÂ. APPROPRIATE TO A SACRIFICE TO THANG, THE FOUNDER OF THE SHANG DYNASTY, DWELLING ESPECIALLY ON THE MUSIC AND THE REVERENCE WITH WHICH THE SACRIFICE WAS PERFORMED. How admirable! how complete! Here are set our hand-drums and drums. The drums resound harmonious and loud, To delight our meritorious ancestor. The descendant of Thang invites him with this music, That he may soothe us with the realization of our thoughts. Deep is the sound of our hand-drums and drums; Shrilly sound the flutes; All harmonious and blending together, According to the notes of the sonorous gem. Oh! majestic is the descendant of Thang; Very admirable is his music.
65	Confucianism: Confucian Analects Confucius (traditionally 551 BC to 479 BC) Analects events 500 BC Written down 70 years after Confucius’ death The Master "Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application? "Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters? "Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?" The philosopher Yu said, "They are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending against their superiors. There have been none, who, not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring up confusion. "The superior man bends his attention to what is radical. That being established, all practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal submission,-are they not the root of all benevolent actions?" The Master said, "Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue." The philosopher Tsang said, "I daily examine myself on three points:-whether, in transacting business for others, I may have been not faithful;-whether, in intercourse with friends, I may have been not sincere;-whether I may have not mastered and practiced the instructions of my teacher." The Master said, "To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons."
66	Confucianism: Mencius Mencius (traditionally: 372–289 BC; or 385–302 BC) Principal interpreter of Confucianism 1. Mencius went to see king Hûi of Liang. 2. The king said, 'Venerable sir, since you have not counted it far to come here, a distance of a thousand lî, may I presume that you are provided with counsels to profit my kingdom?' 3. Mencius replied, 'Why must your Majesty use that word "profit?" What I am provided with, are counsels to benevolence and righteousness, and these are my only topics. 4. 'If your Majesty say, "What is to be done to profit my kingdom?" the great officers will say, "What is to be done to profit our families?" and the inferior officers and the common people will say, "What is to be done to profit our persons?" Superiors and inferiors will try to snatch this profit the one from the other, and the kingdom will be endangered. In the kingdom of ten thousand chariots, the murderer of his sovereign shall be the chief of a family of a thousand chariots. In the kingdom of a thousand chariots, the murderer of his prince shall be the chief of a family of a hundred chariots. To have a thousand in ten thousand, and a hundred in a thousand, cannot be said not to be a large allotment, but if righteousness be put last, and profit be put first, they will not be satisfied without snatching all.
67	Confucianism: Hsiao Ching The Book of Filial Piety 2 surviving manuscripts, fragmentary text, recommended by Confucius 1 of few that survived book burning 200 BC 713 to 755 AD earliest manuscript 500 BC event (ONCE), when Kung-nî was unoccupied, and his disciple Ȝăng was sitting by in attendance on him, the Master said, 'Shin, the ancient kings had a perfect virtue and all-embracing rule of conduct, through which they were in accord with all under heaven. By the practice of it the people were brought to live in peace and harmony, and there was no ill-will between superiors and inferiors. Do you know what it was?' Ȝăng rose from his mat, and said, 'How should I, Shan, who am so devoid of intelligence, be able to know this?' The Master said, '(It was filial piety). Now filial piety is the root of (all) virtue, and (the stem) out of which grows (all moral) teaching.
68	Confucianism: Bibliographical Manuscripts are fragmentary and few Time between events/manuscripts vary For some documents years between manuscript/incidents Confucian manuscripts as few as 70 years Time significant between earliest manuscripts and originals in every case
69	Confucianism: Internal Test No significant internal contradictions Works are cohesive, some are somewhat incomprehensible Degree of the witness Primary, secondary, tertiary, or none; varies by document Geographically placed Chronologically, placed – there are issues Some texts claim to be histories
70	Confucianism: External Test Comparison with other works (region/time) Works must be compared to each other Other reliable historical literature is not extant Archeology Does support historical claims Historical evidence does support Confucius Confucianism does not claim to be a religion
71	Taoism Tao-te Ching Written down by Lao-tzu, (580-500 BC) May predate Lao-tzu by several centuries Earliest known manuscript 300 BC The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao. The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name. (Conceived of as) having no name, it is the Originator of heaven and earth; (conceived of as) having a name, it is the Mother of all things. Always without desire we must be found, If its deep mystery we would sound; But if desire always within us be, Its outer fringe is all that we shall see. Under these two aspects, it is really the same; but as development takes place, it receives the different names. Together we call them the Mystery. Where the Mystery is the deepest is the gate of all that is subtle and wonderful.
72	Taoism: Bibliographical Test Many manuscripts are available Fragments from 300 BC Earliest complete 150 BC About 200 years between earliest and original Documents are not precisely historical
73	Taoism: Internal Test Acceptable internal differences Work is not entirely cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness Primary by attribution Geographically placed Chronologically, if Lao-tzu is not originator, unknown number of years separate source from author Document is not a history
74	Taoism: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Since work is not a history it is not possible to make these comparisons Archeology Does generally support historical claims Does support the ritual claims
75	Islam Mohammed 571-632 AD (died of sickness) Qur'an – revelation to Mohammed – no other witness Muslims themselves differ very much as to whether the prophet could read or write, the Sunnis denying it and the Shî‘ahs declaring that he was able to do both. The evidence of the fact, though, is very untrustworthy, and in the traditional accounts of the occasions on which he is said to have written, the words may mean nothing more than that he dictated the documents in question. – Translator. THE CHAPTER OF THE HEIFER. (II. Medina.) IN the name of the merciful and compassionate God. That is the book! there is no doubt therein; a guide to the pious, who believe in the unseen, and are steadfast in prayer, and of what we have given them expend in alms; who believe in what is revealed to thee, and what was revealed before thee, and of the hereafter they are sure. These are in guidance from their Lord, and these are the prosperous. Verily, those who misbelieve, it is the same to them if ye warn them or if ye warn them not, they will not believe.
76	Islam Hadith Collection of Islamic laws and traditions Sayings of Mohammed and others Sufi Texts Symbolic poetry and devotional story telling Numerous texts
77	Islam: Bibliographical Test Many manuscripts are available Believed to have a definitive version Earliest complete put together soon after death of Mohammad Interpretation is a significant problem In the present recension of the Qur’ân there are comparatively few various readings recognised, but it is clear that great variations existed from the very first. On more than one occasion Mohammed himself dictated the same passage to different persons with different readings; and the 'traditional saying' ascribed to him, that 'the Our An was revealed according to seven modes of reading,' shows what latitude he himself allowed. The other interpretation of this tradition, namely, that 'the Qur’ân may be read according to the seven Arabic dialects,' was obviously invented to check the tendency to perversion of the text according to individual fancy, and is plainly refuted by the fact that the persons to whom the saying was uttered, and who had appealed to the prophet to decide upon the reading of a certain text, were both of the tribe of Qurâis. Documents make historical claims
78	Islam: Internal Test No significant internal contradictions Work is not entirely cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness Primary by attribution, none by witness Geographically placed Chronologically, unknown number of years separate source from author (at least 1000) Qur'an claims to be a history
79	Islam: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Historical claims are not supported by any other work in antiquity Archeology Does not support historical claims
80	Bahai'i Bab Baha'u'llah 'Abdu'l-Baha Shoghi Effendi
81	Bahai'i Founded mid 19^th Century in Iran Siyyid 'Ali-Muhammad (1819-1850) Self declared Bab “The Gate” Offshoot of Islam No documents in antiquity Works are not histories Theological in nature
82	Mormonism Book of Mormon Pearl of Great Price
83	Mormonism Joseph Smith 1805-1844 AD untaught farmer Found golden plates in New York Dictated and translated the plates using various mystic items to Martin Harris (Martin lost the first translation) Dictated and translated plates again to Oliver Cowdery Published Book of Mormon in 1830 Golden plates were claimed to be seen by 12 people, but were taken back into heaven
84	Mormonism Book of Mormon - 1830 1 Nephi THE FIRST BOOK OF NEPHI HIS REIGN AND MINISTRY An account of Lehi and his wife Sariah and his four sons, being called, (beginning at the eldest) Laman, Lemuel, Sam, and Nephi. The Lord warns Lehi to depart out of the land of Jerusalem, because he prophesieth unto the people concerning their iniquity and they seek to destroy his life. He taketh three days' journey into the wilderness with his family. Nephi taketh his brethren and returneth to the land of Jerusalem after the record of the Jews. The account of their sufferings. They take the daughters of Ishmael to wife. They take their families and depart into the wilderness. Their sufferings and afflictions in the wilderness. The course of their travels. They come to the large waters. Nephi's brethren rebel against him. He confoundeth them, and buildeth a ship. They call the name of the place Bountiful. They cross the large waters into the promised land, and so forth. This is according to the account of Nephi; or in other words, I, Nephi, wrote this record. Pearl of Great Price – 1851 collection articles 1 The words of God, which he spake unto Moses at a time when Moses was caught up into an exceedingly high mountain, 2 And he saw God face to face, and he talked with him, and the glory of God was upon Moses; therefore Moses could endure his presence. 3 And God spake unto Moses, saying: Behold, I am the Lord God Almighty, and Endless is my name; for I am without beginning of days or end of years; and is not this endless?
85	Mormonism: Bibliographical Test Original Cowdery manuscript exists 1830 Brass plates not extant 600 BC No originals, 2430 years separate manuscript and original Golden plates not extant 421 AD No originals, 1409 years separate manuscript and original Unknown span from events to writing Documents make historical claims
86	Mormonism: Internal Test Significant internal contradictions Work is not entirely cohesive or comprehensible Degree of the witness Primary by attribution, none by witness Geographically out of context Chronologically, unknown number of years separate source from author Document claims to be a history
87	Mormonism: External Test Comparison to other works (region/time) Historical claims are not supported by any other work in antiquity Archeology Does not support historical claims No maps in Book of Mormon No correspondence with any area/place name discovered in New/Old World
88	Conclusions Most “religious” works in antiquity have serious historical problems Bibliographical – few meet most basic tenants Internal – most have internal problems External – most are not supported by archeology or other works Can clearly see they are not on the same historical footing as NT documents
89	Course Conclusions Why are we here? Historical Tests Canon Archko Apocryphal Gospels and Works Heretical Gospels and Works Apostolic Fathers Religious Works
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91	Course Conclusions Historical Tests Bibliographical Internal External Canon Primary and secondary Chronologically placed Attributed Historical Not doctrine or theology
92	Course Conclusions Archko May not pass the Bibliographical tests Apocryphal Gospels and Works Not accepted primary or secondary witness Historical issues Heretical Gospels and Works Not accepted primary or secondary witness Historical issues
93	Course Conclusions Jewish Works Not primary or secondary witness Apostolic Fathers Not primary or secondary witness Accepted second generation historical Religious Works Bibliographical issues Most do not claim to be history
94	Course Conclusions What we are left with NT documents Collection of best attributed works in history Historical documents New historical texts may come to light – time is not on our side Not necessarily religious documents