1	Aegypt: The Ancient World through the Eyes of the Egyptians L.D. Alford Session 2: Tunisia and Egypt 1926 www.ldalford.com www.lionelalford.com
2	Introduction Aegypt Historical fiction novel with a fantasy/suspense driver Idea 1992, start 1992, finished 1994 Published by OakTara in Jan 08 Follows Lieutenant Paul Bolang Time July-Nov 1926 Location Tunisia (French Colony) Novel, characters, history, politics
3	Class Syllabus 1. Novel, characters, history, politics 2. Tunisia (French colony) and Egypt (British colony) in time and place 3. Paganism and the Egyptian pantheon 4. Egyptian life 5. Egyptian hieroglyphics 6. Egyptian tombs and constructions 7. Legion Etrangere, French Foreign Legion 8. Conclusion
4	Tunisia Tunisia (Arabic: تونس‎ Tūnis) Tunisian Republic (الجمهورية التونسية‎) North Africa Bordered by Algeria and Libya Northernmost African country About 40% is Sahara desert Much of remainder fertile soil 1300 km coastline
5	Tunisia Desert, fertile soil, and coastline Prominent role in ancient times Phoenician city of Carthage The Africa Province Bread basket of the Roman Empire Ranks highly among Middle Eastern and African nations in reports released by The World Economic Forum
6	History of Tunisia Beginning of recorded history inhabited by Berber tribes Coast settled by Phoenicians as early as the 10th century BC Carthage founded in the 9th cent BC Settlers from Tyre, modern day Lebanon. Legend says Dido founded city 814 BC: Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium. Brought culture and religion from Phoenicians and other Canaanites.
7	History of Tunisia Carthage became dominant civilization in Western Mediterranean Wars with Greek city-states of Sicily 5th century BC People worshipped pantheon of Middle Eastern gods Baal Tanit Symbol, simple female figure, extended arms, long dress, popular icon found in ancient sites.
8	History of Tunisia Carthage originally had a Tophet Place of infant/child sacrifice Altered in Roman times. Romans referred to Carthage as Punic or Phoenician Independent from other Phoenician settlements in the Western Mediterranean.
9	History of Tunisia Carthaginian invasion of Italy Hannibal Second Punic War Series of wars with Rome Nearly crippled rise of the Roman Empire Carthage eventually conquered by Rome 2nd century BC Turning point-led to ancient Mediterranean civilization influenced mainly by European instead of African cultures
10	History of Tunisia After Roman conquest Granaries of Rome Latinized Eventually Christianized Conquered by Vandals 5th century AD Reconquered by Byzantine Belisarius 6th century during rule of emperor Justinian
11	History of Tunisia Conquered by Arab Muslims 7th century City of Kairouan Successive Muslim dynasties ruled, interrupted by Berber rebellions Reign of Aghlabids (9th century)
12	History of Tunisia Zirids (from 972) Berber followers of Fatimids, were especially prosperous. Zirids angered the Fatimids in Cairo (1050) Fatimids sent in the Banu Hilal tribe to ravage Tunisia. Coasts held briefly by Normans of Sicily 12th century Arab reconquest Last Christians in Tunisia disappear
13	History of Tunisia Conquered by Almohad caliphs 1159 Succeeded by Berber Hafsids (c.1230 – 1574) Late 16th century became a pirate stronghold Barbary States) Spain seized many of the coastal cities Recovered by the Ottoman Empire Turkish governors (the Beys) Attained virtual independence Hussein dynasty 1705, lasted until 1957
14	French Rule Government under rule of the Bey Mid-1800s Severely compromised legitimacy Borrowed lots of $ attempt to Westernize Failing state facilitated Algerian raids Weakened Bey powerless against raids Unable to resist European colonization France made plans to take control
15	French Rule Secret deal between United Kingdom and France 1878 French accepted British control of Cyprus British accepted French control of Tunisia French took control in 1880 Made French protectorate, May 12, 1881
16	World War II Tunisia Campaign First major operation by Allied Forces (the British Commonwealth and the United States) against the Axis Powers (Italy and Germany) 1942 – 1943
17	World War II Main body of British army Advanced from victory in Battle of el-Alamein British Field Marshal Montgomery, From the south US and other allies Following invasions of Algeria and Morocco in Operation Torch Invaded from the west
18	World War II General Rommel Commander of the Axis forces in North Africa Hoped to inflict a similar defeat like Battle of France in 1940 Inexperienced allied forces Unable to withstand German blitzkriegs Unable to properly coordinate operations Battle for Tunisia major test for the allies
19	World War II February 19, 1943, General Rommel launched an attack on the American forces in Kasserine Pass Initial results a disaster for the US Area of Pass site of many US war graves American forces reversed retreat Learned critical lesson in tank warfare Allies broke through the Mareth line, March 20, 1943
20	World War II Allies subsequently linked up, April 8 May 2, 1943 German-Italian Army in Tunisia surrendered US, UK, Free French, Polish (other forces) won 1^st major battle as allied army Overshadowed by Stalingrad Represented 1^st major allied victory of WWII Forged Alliance would liberate Western Europe
21	Tunisia
22	Tunisia
23	Tunisia
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27	Chott
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29	Sabria
30	Douz
31	Sabria
32	Tunis
33	Tunis
34	Tunis
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36	Tozeur
37	Sabria
38	Douz
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44	Chott
45	Chott
46	Chott
47	Chott Shore
48	Chott
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50	Chott Dejrid
51	Egypt: British Occupation Opposition to European control,1882 Growing tension among native notables Dangerous opposition from the army Lg military demonstration Sept 1881 Forced Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss PM France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria, April 1882 Bolster the Khedive Spread fear of European invasion throughout the country
52	Egypt: British Occupation Tawfiq moved to Alexandria for fear of his own safety Army officers led by Ahmed Urabi took control of government, June 1882 British bombardment of Alexandria Little effect on the opposition Led to landing of a British expeditionary force at both ends of Suez Canal in August 1882
53	Egypt: British Occupation British defeated Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir, Sept 1882 Took control Placed Tawfiq back in power Purpose of the invasion: restore political stability under government of Khedive with international controls in place to streamline financing since 1876 Unlikely British expected a long-term occupation
54	Egypt: British Occupation Lord Cromer, Britain's Chief Representative in Egypt Viewed financial reforms as long-term objective Political stability needed financial stability Embarked on a program of long term investment in Egypt's productive resources, especially in cotton, the mainstay of country's export earnings. Marked beginning of British military occupation of Egypt until 1936
55	Egypt: British Occupation Denshawai incident1906 Declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire 1914 Egypt was nominally a part Britain declared Protectorate Deposed the Khedive Replaced him with a family member made Sultan of Egypt by the British
56	Egypt: British Occupation Wafd Delegation attended Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypt's independence Included Saad Zaghlul, later PM Group arrested and deported to Malta Result: huge uprising First Revolution March to April 1919 Mass demonstrations British repression led to the death 800
57	Egypt: British Occupation Milner Commission Nov 1919 Attempt to resolve the situation Lord Milner submitted report to Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary 1920 Recommended the protectorate replaced by a treaty of alliance. Curzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Zaghlul and Adli Pasha Mission arrived in London in June 1920 Agreement concluded in August 1920 February 1921, British Parliament approved the agreement
58	Egypt: British Occupation Egypt asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty Adli Pasha led this mission, June 1921 Dominion delegates 1921 Imperial Conference stressed importance of maintaining control over Suez Canal Zone Curzon could not persuade Cabinet to agree to any terms Adli Pasha was prepared to accept Mission returned to Egypt in disgust
59	Egypt: British Occupation British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law, Dec 1921 Deported Zaghlul Demonstrations again led to violence In deference to growing nationalism and at the suggestion of the High Commissioner, Lord Allenby, UK unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922 Abolished protectorate Establishedindependent Kingdom of Egypt Sarwat Pasha became prime minister
60	Egypt: British Occupation British influence continued to dominate Egypt's political life Fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms Britain retained control of Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypt's external protection Zaghlul elected Prime Minister in 1924 Demanded Egypt and Sudan merge
61	Egypt: British Occupation British Governor-General of Sudan Assassinated in Cairo November 19, 1924 Pro-Egyptian riots broke out in Sudan British demanded Egypt pay apology fee Withdraw troops from Sudan Zaghlul agreed to 1^st but not 2^nd and resigned Pre-1952 revolution period Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political organization strongly opposed to British King Fuad, British installed in 1922 British themselves: the Canal
62	Egypt: British Occupation Other political forces emerged Communist party (1925) Muslim Brotherhood (1928) King Fuad died in 1936 Farouk inherited the throne 16 Alarmed by Italy's recent invasion of Ethiopia, signed Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, required Britain withdraw all troops from Egypt, except at Suez Canal (agreed to be evacuated by 1949)
63	Egypt: British Occupation During World War II, British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 Nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war On 22 July–23 July 1952, disaffected army officers led by Lt Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk
64	Ancient Egypt 1st Dynasty (2920 – 2770 BC) Capital at Memphis founded Papyrus invented Writing was used by government Many impressive artifacts found from this period. 2890 - 2686 Wooden coffins and corpses wrapped in resin
65	Ancient Egypt 2nd Dynasty(2770 – 2650 BC) After much rivalry for the throne Hetepsekhemsy won Kings disagreed over which god, Horus and Seth, was in power Finally settled when Khasekhemwy became ruler He took both titles Disorder erupted during end of this dynasty Could have been a civil war
66	Ancient Egypt 3rd Dynasty (2650-2575 BC) 2686 - 2648 Step Pyramid at Saqqara built by King Djoser
67	Ancient Egypt 4th Dynasty (2575-2467 BC ) During this dynasty a great peace Kings were able to put their energies in art King Khufu's Great Pyramid of Giza built People prayed to the sun god Ra First religious words written on walls of royal tombs 2550 - 2490 Khufu (Cheops), Khephren, and Menkare build great pyramids 2494 - 2487 King Userkaf builds temple for sun god Ra at Abusir
68	Ancient Egypt 5th Dynasty (2465-2323 BC) For first time high officials came from people outside of the royal family Pyramids begin to be smaller and less solid Carvings in the temples of great quality Papyrus scrolls from this time discovered Showed record keeping of goods 2375 - 2345 Pyramid Texts describe Osiris 2420 - 2258 Pepi I and Pepi II rule - government weakens
69	Ancient Egypt 6th Dynasty (2323-2152 BC) Many records of trading expeditions discovered from this period 2160 Capitol moves from Memphis to Herakleopolis in northern Middle Egypt - Upper Egypt controlled by Theban rulers 7th & 8th Dynasties (2150 – 2135 BC) Political structure of Old Kingdom collapsed Famine, civil disorder, and a high death rate
70	Ancient Egypt 9th and 10th Dynasties (2135 - 1986) Egypt split into the north, ruled from Herakleopolis, and the south, ruled from Thebes 11th Dynasty (2074-1937) Prosperous period with much foreign trade. Many large building projects Skilled jewelry making Government became strong with King Amenemhet I's rule.
71	Ancient Egypt 11th Dynasty (2074-1937 BC) Egypt reunified under rule of Metuhotep Built mortuary complex at Dyr al-Bahri 2134 - 2000 Capital moved to Thebes - Egypt reunited by Mentuhotep II 1985 - 1956 Amenemhat I begins trade with Asia and Aegean 1956 - 1911 Letters from farmer to family describing family and agricultural life 1956 - 1911 Senusret I builds temple of Karnak at Thebes
72	Ancient Egypt 12th Dynasty (1937-1756 BC) Amenemhet moved the capital back to Memphis Sesostris II reorganized Egypt into 4 regions (northern and southern halves of the Nile Valley and eastern and western Delta) 1877 - 1870 Senusret II builds Faiyum irrigation scheme
73	Ancient Egypt 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, & 17th Dynasties (1783-1539 BC) Few monuments from this period survived Each king reigned only short time Some of these kings born commoners Eastern Delta region broke away 1700 Earliest evidence diagnostic medicine 1650 Capital moved to Thebes - building 1650 - 1580 Book of the Dead 1^st appears 1560 War between Thebes & Asiatic ruler
74	Ancient Egypt Aegypt period 18th Dynasty (1539-1295) Ahmose finally beat Hyksos sent them out of Egypt. Dynasty had number of strong rulers. Thutmose I conquered parts of Near East and Africa. Hatshepsut and Thutmose made Egypt super power Amenhotep II began an artistic revolution. Akhenaton and Nefertiti began a new religion with one god.
75	Ancient Egypt Aegypt period 18th Dynasty (1539-1295 BC) Tutankhamen reigned 1532 - 1528 Asiatic kings conquer Hyksos 1504 - 1492 Thutmose I begins campaigns 1380 Building of the Temple of Luxor by Amenhotep III 1367 – 1350 Rule of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) - changed from polytheism to monotheistic society 1336 - 1327 Reign of Tutankhamon
76	Ancient Egypt 19th Dynasty (1295-1186 BC) Seti I restored many monuments His temple at Abydos has some of the most superior carved wall relief Many battles and treaties written between Egypt and Asiatic powers 1279 - 1213 Ramses II begins building projects - including his mortuary temple The Ramesseum (on the West Bank near Luxor)
77	Ancient Egypt 20th Dynasty (1186-1069 BC) Setakht restored order to country Ramesses III one of the greatest kings 1186 - 1089 Royal Tombs in Valley of the Kings plundered 21st Dynasty (1070-945 BC) Egypt no longer a world power Civil war/foreign invaders tear Egypt apart Capital moved from Tanis to Libyan, to Nubia, to Thebes, to Sais, then back to Nubia and Thebes
78	Tunisia Fort Saint Chott Djerid Chott Melrhir Tozeur Nefta Tomerzu Sabria Douz
79	Foundation
80	Synopsis Beginning of the dig Breakthrough Discovery of the corridors The basalt plug The seal on the basalt plug The northern corridor The rubbing
81	Clearing
82	Synopsis The rubbing The discovery of the northern entrance To be continued…
83	Northern Corridor
84	The First Corridor As Paul’s eyes became accustomed to the dim light, the vivid markings and colors of the walls became evident. They were bright and appeared new, as though the pigments were just applied. Paul took a step forward through the gapping stones that had been pushed into the tunnel. The intricate designs of the hieroglyphics were cut deeply into the walls, and this relief was colored in the brightest shades imaginable. Paul was unfamiliar with the hieroglyphic symbols. He couldn’t make out any of the word pictures, but the pantheon of the Egyptian gods of the early kingdom marched boldly across the inner wall. Ra was followed by Bastet, Khnum, Thoth, Apis, Sobek, Anubis, and then Osiris. From end to end, the inner wall was illustrated with temple wards and Egyptian mythological sequences.
85	The First Corridor Paul nodded to Parrain who, still dressed in his white coat, was setting up a large camera and flashpan. Then Paul turned and walked down the passage to where Audrey was motioning him. “Bolang, look at this.” Audrey pointed to a huge block of black basalt in the western wall of the passage. “This blocks a set of stone steps that leads straight from the surface to this corridor. You can see the stair beams along the southern side of the hole we dug. We were lucky to discover this corridor so easily.
86	The First Corridor “Bolang, this is the vestibule of a temple complex and a tomb, an Egyptian construction unknown before this time.” Audrey spun around and pointed to the hieroglyphics on the opposite wall. “You see, Bolang, a temple, but sealed like a tomb.” Paul put his hand on his chin. Unusual. An amazing discovery if it were true. The designs were definitely those of an Egyptian temple. “How old do you think this is, Mr. Audrey?” “Perhaps five hundred years older than the Temple of Rameses—maybe older.” “Ancient, but look at the freshness of the colors.” “Yes, I was shocked as well, but come look further along here.” Audrey led Paul about ten meters further down the corridor. A wall of sand and rock solidly filled the opening. “It’s the same on the other side,” said Audrey.
87	The First Corridor “Sealed,” stated Paul. “Sealed completely—and hurriedly.” “What do you make of that?” “Nothing yet, but it is as unusual to seal a temple as it is to so hurriedly seal a tomb.” Audrey chuckled, “You’d think they were sealing something in instead of grave robbers out.”
88	The Basalt Stone Finally, Paul had cleared the framed area of the stone. It was a section nearly two meters by a meter and a half. Within it was carved two facing women seated on thrones. They were depicted in early kingdom style yet with many more details than Paul had ever seen in this kind of relief. But the most intriguing aspect of both was their beauty. Paul never set his eyes on such beauty. Their eyes were luminous, large and slightly slanted, but not in the usual Egyptian stylistic representation. The lips were well defined and sensuous. They revealed the thoughts of the women as he saw no other Egyptian engraving do before. The cheekbones were evident and high. The nose was straight but not large. Beauty radiated out of the time-worn relief, and was itself as disturbing as the rest of the inscriptions.
89	The Basalt Stone Unusually, the women held scepters and wore Imperial crowns. The woman on the left held the divine scepter and wore a sun-disk crown of Ra the sun god. Below and to the left of her throne was a depiction of Ra himself. The woman on the right held the scepter and flail and wore the crown of Osiris the god of the dead, and to the right and below this figure was a depiction of Osiris. The entire pantheon of the early kingdom was portrayed in the area beneath the thrones. The figure of Ra was followed by Bastet, Khnum, Thoth, Apis, Sobek, Anubis, and then Osiris. Strangely, Horus, the symbol of the Pharaoh’s divinity was not included.
90	The Basalt Stone Paul sat back on his heels and studied the inscriptions. He was intrigued and puzzled by them. Even more confusing was the question of why this relief had been covered over. The obvious answer was to hide the black basalt plug because that would have been evident even from miles away. Yet, the reasoning was faulty: why decorate a seal so painstakingly you intend to later cover? And, even more pointedly, why use an entirely different stonework of a much lesser grade to cover the seal? Paul couldn’t answer these questions—yet. But he thought the inscription might shed some light on the mystery. He took out his green notebook and copied some of the more dominant patterns of the hieroglyphics. The picture writing was not exactly what he was used to; it was full of determinatives, with few separate consonant hieroglyphs. It was perhaps a very early form of hieroglyphics more akin to pictograms than the abstractions of later Egyptian writing. Audrey could perhaps shed some light on their meanings.
91	The Temple Audrey stepped toward the dig with a gesture, and Paul found he couldn’t keep himself from following. They made their way down the ladder into the close darkness of the ancient corridors. Like before, Paul was filled with awe and apprehension, and he had to force himself to move after the descending figure of the archeologist. As their eyes became accustomed to the darkness, their steps became surer under the flickering light of the torches. They turned to the north along the main corridor that fronted the archeologist’s breach. At the end, the sand had been cleared and a corridor ran to the east at the corner. They turned right, and before long, they reached the far portion of the work that was already complete.
92	The Temple Audrey took a torch from one of the native workmen and held it close to the inner wall. On it Paul could easily discern a temple building of grandeur. The sun rose behind it and on its eastern side stood an entrance. A peculiarity of the inscription was the figure in the picture. It was a woman rising with the sun, and the temple was divided one side light and one side dark. “Where is Ra?” intoned Paul under his breath. “Good question,” Audrey answered him, “It looks like a tribute to one of your new deities. Take a look at the corners of the building.” Paul looked carefully at the hieroglyphics Audrey pointed to. The symbols for plain, lake, plain, lake were evident at the four sides of the temple.
93	The Temple “It looks like an ancient depiction of the terrain at the sides of the foundation.” Audrey smiled. “It does indeed.” “You believe it’s the same temple that once sat above us on the foundation?” “I am convinced of it.” “Where’s the temple, Mr. Audrey?” “That’s a very good question, Lieutenant Bolang. It seems to me that someone went to a great deal of effort to cart the thing away.” “They took it down completely and concealed the only portion that was visible at a distance—the basalt plug.”
94	Summary Overview of the Novel Not finished… Give you a chance to catch up Met the major characters Not all…
95	Next Time Paganism and the Egyptian pantheon